最近在接触一些关深度强化学习(DRL)的内容，本文是学习DRL过程中对Demo的复现与理解。相关原理推荐李宏毅的Q-Learning强化学习和深度强化学习课程。
强化学习中有两种重要的方法：Policy Gradients和Q-learning。其中Policy Gradients方法直接预测在某个环境下应该采取的Action，而Q-learning方法预测某个环境下所有Action的期望值(即Q值）。一般来说，Q-learning方法只适合有少量离散取值的Action环境，而Policy Gradients方法适合有连续取值的Action环境。在与深度学习方法结合后，这两种算法就变成了DPG(Deterministic Policy Gradient)和DQN(Deep Q-learning Network)，他们都是由DeepMind提出来的。DDPG（Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient）则是利用 DQN 扩展 Q 学习算法的思路对DPG方法进行改造得到的（Actor-Critic，AC）框架的算法，该算法可用于解决连续动作空间上的 DRL 问题。
环境
Python 3.6
Tensorflow-gpu 1.8.0
Keras 2.2.2
Gym 0.10.8
Gym
Gym 是 OpenAI 发布的用于开发和比较强化学习算法的工具包。使用它我们可以让 AI 智能体做很多事情，比如行走、跑动，以及进行多种游戏。在这个Demo中，我们使用的是车杆游戏(Cart-Pole)这个小游戏。
游戏规则很简单，游戏里面有一个小车，上有竖着一根杆子。小车需要左右移动来保持杆子竖直。如果杆子倾斜的角度大于15°，那么游戏结束。小车也不能移动出一个范围（中间到两边各2.4个单位长度）。
Cart-Pole:
car.png
Cart-Pole世界包括一个沿水平轴移动的车和一个固定在车上的杆子。 在每个时间步，你可以观察它的位置（x），速度（x_dot），角度（theta）和角速度（theta_dot）。 这是这个世界的可观察的状态。 在任何状态下，车只有两种可能的行动：向左移动或向右移动。换句话说，Cart-Pole的状态空间有四个维度的连续值，行动空间有一个维度的两个离散值。
首先安装gym:
pip install gym
gym尝试：
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-import gymimport numpy as npdef try_gym():
# 使用gym创建一个CartPole环境
# 这个环境可以接收一个action，返回执行action后的观测值，奖励与游戏是否结束
env = gym.make('CartPole-v0') # 重置游戏环境
env.reset() # 游戏轮数
random_episodes = 0
# 每轮游戏的Reward总和
reward_sum = 0
count = 0
while random_episodes < 10: # 渲染显示游戏效果
env.render() # 随机生成一个action，即向左移动或者向右移动。
# 然后接收执行action之后的反馈值
observation, reward, done, _ = env.step(np.random.randint(0, 2))
reward_sum += reward
count += 1
# 如果游戏结束，打印Reward总和，重置游戏
if done:
random_episodes += 1
print("Reward for this episode was: {}, turns was: {}".format(reward_sum, count))
reward_sum = 0
count = 0
env.reset()if __name__ == '__main__':
try_gym()我们输出的是每一轮游戏从开始到结束得到的Reward的总和与操作次数，输出结果如下：
Reward for this episode was: 20.0, turns was: 20Reward for this episode was: 26.0, turns was: 26Reward for this episode was: 18.0, turns was: 18Reward for this episode was: 25.0, turns was: 25Reward for this episode was: 25.0, turns was: 25Reward for this episode was: 23.0, turns was: 23Reward for this episode was: 29.0, turns was: 29Reward for this episode was: 17.0, turns was: 17Reward for this episode was: 13.0, turns was: 13Reward for this episode was: 27.0, turns was: 27
如果使用的环境是Anoconda 3,可能会出现下列错误：
raise NotImplementedError('abstract')NotImplementedError: abstract这是由于pyglet引起的，需要替换成1.2.4版本：
pip uninstall pyglet pip install pyglet==1.2.4
DPG
DPG是一种典型的蒙特卡洛方法，是在一个episode结束时对数据进行学习。
DPG的实现流程如下：
（1）首先构建神经网络，网络的输入为obervation，网络的输出为action=1的概率。
（2）在一个episode结束时（游戏胜利或死亡），将env重置，即observation恢复到了初始状态。下一次循环时，输入observation，输出一个概率值p0。根据概率p0选取一个action输入到环境中，获取到新的observation和reward。记录[observation, action, reward]作为后续训练的数据。
（3）reward为大于0的数，根据上面的action得到reward，将整个episode的reward放到一个序列里，然后计算discount_reward。
（4）攒够个batch的episode，进行梯度下降更新。损失函数分为两部分，首先使用binary_crossentropy计算action的交叉熵损失，然后与discount_reward相乘得到最终损失。
使用keras实现的DPG如下所示：
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-import osimport gymimport numpy as npfrom keras.layers import Input, Densefrom keras.models import Modelfrom keras.optimizers import Adamimport keras.backend as Kclass DPG:
def __init__(self):
self.model = self.build_model() if os.path.exists('dpg.h5'):
self.model.load_weights('dpg.h5')
self.env = gym.make('CartPole-v0')
self.gamma = 0.95
def build_model(self):
"""基本网络结构.
"""
inputs = Input(shape=(4,), name='ob_input')
x = Dense(16, activation='relu')(inputs)
x = Dense(16, activation='relu')(x)
x = Dense(1, activation='sigmoid')(x)
model = Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=x) return model def loss(self, y_true, y_pred):
"""损失函数.
Arguments:
y_true: (action, reward)
y_pred: action_prob
Returns:
loss: reward loss
"""
action_pred = y_pred
action_true, discount_episode_reward = y_true[:, 0], y_true[:, 1] # 二分类交叉熵损失
action_true = K.reshape(action_true, (-1, 1))
loss = K.binary_crossentropy(action_true, action_pred) # 乘上discount_reward
loss = loss * K.flatten(discount_episode_reward) return loss def discount_reward(self, rewards):
"""Discount reward
Arguments:
rewards: 一次episode中的rewards
"""
# 以时序顺序计算一次episode中的discount reward
discount_rewards = np.zeros_like(rewards, dtype=np.float32)
cumulative = 0.
for i in reversed(range(len(rewards))):
cumulative = cumulative * self.gamma + rewards[i]
discount_rewards[i] = cumulative # normalization,有利于控制梯度的方差
discount_rewards -= np.mean(discount_rewards)
discount_rewards //= np.std(discount_rewards) return list(discount_rewards) def train(self, episode, batch):
"""训练
Arguments:
episode: 游戏次数
batch： 一个batch包含几次episode，每个batch更新一次梯度
Returns:
history: 训练记录
"""
self.model.compile(loss=self.loss, optimizer=Adam(lr=0.01))
history = {'episode': [], 'Batch_reward': [], 'Episode_reward': [], 'Loss': []}
episode_reward = 0
states = []
actions = []
rewards = []
discount_rewards = [] for i in range(episode):
observation = self.env.reset()
erewards = [] while True:
x = observation.reshape(-1, 4)
prob = self.model.predict(x)[0][0] # 根据随机概率选择action
action = np.random.choice(np.array(range(2)), size=1, p=[1 - prob, prob])[0]
observation, reward, done, _ = self.env.step(action) # 记录一个episode中产生的数据
states.append(x[0])
actions.append(action)
erewards.append(reward)
rewards.append(reward) if done: # 一次episode结束后计算discount rewards
discount_rewards.extend(self.discount_reward(erewards)) break
# 保存batch个episode的数据，用这些数据更新模型
if i != 0 and i % batch == 0:
batch_reward = sum(rewards)
episode_reward = batch_reward / batch # 输入X为状态， y为action与discount_rewards，用来与预测出来的prob计算损失
X = np.array(states)
y = np.array(list(zip(actions, discount_rewards)))
loss = self.model.train_on_batch(X, y)
history['episode'].append(i)
history['Batch_reward'].append(batch_reward)
history['Episode_reward'].append(episode_reward)
history['Loss'].append(loss)
print('Episode: {} | Batch reward: {} | Episode reward: {} | loss: {:.3f}'.format(i, batch_reward, episode_reward, loss))
episode_reward = 0
states = []
actions = []
rewards = []
discount_rewards = []
self.model.save_weights('dpg.h5') return history def play(self):
"""使用训练好的模型测试游戏.
"""
observation = self.env.reset()
count = 0
reward_sum = 0
random_episodes = 0
while random_episodes < 10:
self.env.render()
x = observation.reshape(-1, 4)
prob = self.model.predict(x)[0][0]
action = 1 if prob > 0.5 else 0
observation, reward, done, _ = self.env.step(action)
count += 1
reward_sum += reward if done:
print("Reward for this episode was: {}, turns was: {}".format(reward_sum, count))
random_episodes += 1
reward_sum = 0
count = 0
observation = self.env.reset()if __name__ == '__main__':
model = DPG()
history = model.train(5000, 5)
model.play()训练结果与测试结果如下所示，可以看出随着训练次数的增加，DPG模型在游戏中获得Reward不断的增加，并且Loss不断降低。在完成5000次Episode的训练后进行模型测试， 相比随机操作来说DPG模型能达到200 reward，由于到达200个reward之后游戏也会结束，因此DPG可以说是解决了这个问题。
但是根据我的实验，DPG训练起来并不稳定，模型参数初始化对训练效果也有着较大的影响，需要多次尝试。有时reward收敛一段时间后又会快速下降，出现周期性的变化，从图中也可以看出训练过程的不稳定。
Episode: 5 | Batch reward: 120.0 | Episode reward: 24.0 | loss: -0.325 Episode: 10 | Batch reward: 67.0 | Episode reward: 13.4 | loss: -0.300Episode: 15 | Batch reward: 128.0 | Episode reward: 25.6 | loss: -0.326 Episode: 20 | Batch reward: 117.0 | Episode reward: 23.4 | loss: -0.332Episode: 25 | Batch reward: 122.0 | Episode reward: 24.4 | loss: -0.330 Episode: 30 | Batch reward: 97.0 | Episode reward: 19.4 | loss: -0.339Episode: 35 | Batch reward: 120.0 | Episode reward: 24.0 | loss: -0.331 ...... Episode: 4960 | Batch reward: 973.0 | Episode reward: 194.6 | loss: -0.228Episode: 4965 | Batch reward: 1000.0 | Episode reward: 200.0 | loss: -0.224 Episode: 4970 | Batch reward: 881.0 | Episode reward: 176.2 | loss: -0.238Episode: 4975 | Batch reward: 1000.0 | Episode reward: 200.0 | loss: -0.213 Episode: 4980 | Batch reward: 974.0 | Episode reward: 194.8 | loss: -0.229Episode: 4985 | Batch reward: 862.0 | Episode reward: 172.4 | loss: -0.235 Episode: 4990 | Batch reward: 914.0 | Episode reward: 182.8 | loss: -0.233Episode: 4995 | Batch reward: 737.0 | Episode reward: 147.4 | loss: -0.254 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200
DPG
DQN
DQN是一种典型的时序差分方法，与DPG不同，DQN对时刻n与时刻n+1的数据进行学习，这样话其产生的方差要小于蒙特卡洛方法。常用的DQN算法是在15年提出来的Nature DQN，这里使用Nature DQN为例。
DQN使用单个网络来进行选择动作和计算目标Q值；Nature DQN使用了两个网络，一个当前主网络用来选择动作，更新模型参数，另一个目标网络用于计算目标Q值，两个网络的结构是一模一样的。目标网络的网络参数不需要迭代更新，而是每隔一段时间从当前主网络复制过来，即延时更新，这样可以减少目标Q值和当前的Q值相关性。Nature DQN和DQN相比，除了用一个新的相同结构的目标网络来计算目标Q值以外，其余部分基本是完全相同的。
Nature DQN的实现流程如下：
（1）首先构建神经网络，一个主网络，一个目标网络，他们的输入都为obervation，输出为不同action对应的Q值。
（2）在一个episode结束时（游戏胜利或死亡），将env重置，即observation恢复到了初始状态observation，通过贪婪选择法ε-greedy选择action。根据选择的action，获取到新的next_observation、reward和游戏状态。将[observation, action, reward, next_observation, done]放入到经验池中。经验池有一定的容量，会将旧的数据删除。
（3）从经验池中随机选取batch个大小的数据，计算出observation的Q值作为Q_target。对于done为False的数据，使用reward和next_observation计算discount_reward。然后将discount_reward更新到Q_traget中。
（4）每一个action进行一次梯度下降更新，使用MSE作为损失函数。注意与DPG不同，参数更新不是发生在每次游戏结束，而是发生在游戏进行中的每一步。
（5）每个batch我们更新参数epsilon，egreedy的epsilon是不断变小的，也就是随机性不断变小。
（6）每隔固定的步数，从主网络中复制参数到目标网络。
使用keras实现的Nature DQN如下所示：
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-import osimport gymimport randomimport numpy as npfrom collections import dequefrom keras.layers import Input, Densefrom keras.models import Modelfrom keras.optimizers import Adamimport keras.backend as Kclass DQN:
def __init__(self):
self.model = self.build_model()
self.target_model = self.build_model()
self.update_target_model() if os.path.exists('dqn.h5'):
self.model.load_weights('dqn.h5') # 经验池
self.memory_buffer = deque(maxlen=2000) # Q_value的discount rate，以便计算未来reward的折扣回报
self.gamma = 0.95
# 贪婪选择法的随机选择行为的程度
self.epsilon = 1.0
# 上述参数的衰减率
self.epsilon_decay = 0.995
# 最小随机探索的概率
self.epsilon_min = 0.01
self.env = gym.make('CartPole-v0') def build_model(self):
"""基本网络结构.
"""
inputs = Input(shape=(4,))
x = Dense(16, activation='relu')(inputs)
x = Dense(16, activation='relu')(x)
x = Dense(2, activation='linear')(x)
model = Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=x) return model def update_target_model(self):
"""更新target_model
"""
self.target_model.set_weights(self.model.get_weights()) def egreedy_action(self, state):
"""ε-greedy选择action
Arguments:
state: 状态
Returns:
action: 动作
"""
if np.random.rand() <= self.epsilon: return random.randint(0, 1) else:
q_values = self.model.predict(state)[0] return np.argmax(q_values) def remember(self, state, action, reward, next_state, done):
"""向经验池添加数据
Arguments:
state: 状态
action: 动作
reward: 回报
next_state: 下一个状态
done: 游戏结束标志
"""
item = (state, action, reward, next_state, done)
self.memory_buffer.append(item) def update_epsilon(self):
"""更新epsilon
"""
if self.epsilon >= self.epsilon_min:
self.epsilon *= self.epsilon_decay def process_batch(self, batch):
"""batch数据处理
Arguments:
batch: batch size
Returns:
X: states
y: [Q_value1, Q_value2]
"""
# 从经验池中随机采样一个batch
data = random.sample(self.memory_buffer, batch) # 生成Q_target。
states = np.array([d[0] for d in data])
next_states = np.array([d[3] for d in data])
y = self.model.predict(states)
q = self.target_model.predict(next_states) for i, (_, action, reward, _, done) in enumerate(data):
target = reward if not done:
target += self.gamma * np.amax(q[i])
y[i][action] = target return states, y def train(self, episode, batch):
"""训练
Arguments:
episode: 游戏次数
batch： batch size
Returns:
history: 训练记录
"""
self.model.compile(loss='mse', optimizer=Adam(1e-3))
history = {'episode': [], 'Episode_reward': [], 'Loss': []}
count = 0
for i in range(episode):
observation = self.env.reset()
reward_sum = 0
loss = np.infty
done = False
while not done: # 通过贪婪选择法ε-greedy选择action。
x = observation.reshape(-1, 4)
action = self.egreedy_action(x)
observation, reward, done, _ = self.env.step(action) # 将数据加入到经验池。
reward_sum += reward
self.remember(x[0], action, reward, observation, done) if len(self.memory_buffer) > batch: # 训练
X, y = self.process_batch(batch)
loss = self.model.train_on_batch(X, y)
count += 1
# 减小egreedy的epsilon参数。
self.update_epsilon() # 固定次数更新target_model
if count != 0 and count % 20 == 0:
self.update_target_model() if i % 5 == 0:
history['episode'].append(i)
history['Episode_reward'].append(reward_sum)
history['Loss'].append(loss)
print('Episode: {} | Episode reward: {} | loss: {:.3f} | e:{:.2f}'.format(i, reward_sum, loss, self.epsilon))
self.model.save_weights('dqn.h5') return history def play(self):
"""使用训练好的模型测试游戏.
"""
observation = self.env.reset()
count = 0
reward_sum = 0
random_episodes = 0
while random_episodes < 10:
self.env.render()
x = observation.reshape(-1, 4)
q_values = self.model.predict(x)[0]
action = np.argmax(q_values)
observation, reward, done, _ = self.env.step(action)
count += 1
reward_sum += reward if done:
print("Reward for this episode was: {}, turns was: {}".format(reward_sum, count))
random_episodes += 1
reward_sum = 0
count = 0
observation = self.env.reset()
self.env.close()if __name__ == '__main__':
model = DQN()
history = model.train(600, 32)
model.play()训练结果与测试结果如下所示，可以看出随着训练次数的增加，DQN模型在游戏中获得Reward不断的增加，并且Loss不断降低。在batch=32的条件下500次Episode的训练后进行模型测试， DQN也有不错的表现，如果进一步训练应该能达到和DPG同样的效果。
相比DPG，DQN的训练过程更稳定一些，但是DQN有个问题，就是它并不一定能保证Q网络的收敛，也就是说，我们不一定可以得到收敛后的Q网络参数，这会导致我们训练出的模型效果很差，因此也需要反复尝试选取最好的模型。
Episode: 0 | Episode reward: 11.0 | loss: inf | e:1.00 Episode: 5 | Episode reward: 23.0 | loss: 0.816 | e:0.67Episode: 10 | Episode reward: 18.0 | loss: 2.684 | e:0.46 Episode: 15 | Episode reward: 11.0 | loss: 3.662 | e:0.34Episode: 20 | Episode reward: 16.0 | loss: 2.702 | e:0.23 Episode: 25 | Episode reward: 10.0 | loss: 4.092 | e:0.18Episode: 30 | Episode reward: 12.0 | loss: 3.734 | e:0.13 ... Episode: 460 | Episode reward: 111.0 | loss: 6.325 | e:0.01Episode: 465 | Episode reward: 180.0 | loss: 0.046 | e:0.01 Episode: 470 | Episode reward: 141.0 | loss: 0.136 | e:0.01Episode: 475 | Episode reward: 169.0 | loss: 0.110 | e:0.01 Episode: 480 | Episode reward: 200.0 | loss: 0.095 | e:0.01Episode: 485 | Episode reward: 200.0 | loss: 0.024 | e:0.01 Episode: 490 | Episode reward: 200.0 | loss: 0.066 | e:0.01Episode: 495 | Episode reward: 146.0 | loss: 0.022 | e:0.01 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 196.0, turns was: 196 Reward for this episode was: 198.0, turns was: 198 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 199.0, turns was: 199 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 193.0, turns was: 193 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200 Reward for this episode was: 189.0, turns was: 189 Reward for this episode was: 200.0, turns was: 200
DQN
对比
（1）DPG可以处理连续的action，而DQN则只能处理离散问题，通过枚举的方式来实现，连续的action只能离散化后再处理。
（2）DPG通过输出的action概率值大小随机选择action，而DQN则通过贪婪选择法ε-greedy选择action。
（3）DQN的更新是一个一个的reward进行更新，即当前的reward只跟邻近的一个相关；DPG则将一个episode的reward全部保存起来，然后用discount的方式修正reward，标准化后进行更新。
作者：洛荷
链接：https://www.jianshu.com/p/e037d42ab6b1
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